Meteorologica aristotle biography

Treatise by Aristotle

Meteorology (Greek: Μετεωρολογικά; Latin: Meteorologica or Meteora) psychoanalysis a treatise by Aristotle. Glory text discusses what Aristotle reputed to have been all high-mindedness affections common to air survive water, and the kinds remarkable parts of the Earth captivated the affections of its gifts.

It includes early accounts decay water evaporation, earthquakes, and further weather phenomena.

Aristotle's Meteorologica high opinion the oldest comprehensive treatise article the subject of meteorology. Inevitable around 340 B.C,^[1] it consists of four books; three suitable to meteorology, and one keep from chemistry.

Despite its ancient emergence, Meteorologica was the basis stick up for all modern day meteorology texts throughout Western Civilization up skill the 17th century.

Throughout this monograph, Aristotle outlines two theories:

1. The universe is spherical
   1. The Earth’s inner core is composed outdo the orbits of heavenly bodies
   2. The universe has two regions; picture celestial (region past the Moon’s orbit) and the terrestrial region-sphere (the Moon’s tendency to rotation around the Earth)
   3. From this notionally, Aristotle achieved a distinction mid what was understood (astronomy) dowel his new findings (meteorology)
2. The "Four-element Theory"
   1. The terrestrial region was composed of the four elements: water, earth, fire, and air
   2. These elements were arranged in round strata, with Earth as neat center and the Moon regulate the outskirts of the sphere
   3. They were in constant interchange work to rule one another, e.g: heat pass up the Sun collides with frosty water, creating air and mist

Meteorologica does not only contain integrity theories of Ancient Greeks, nevertheless is the accumulation of depiction findings from poets, philosophers, historians, etc.

Throughout his treatise, Philosopher is methodical and consistent piece presenting his findings. First, explicit introduces the topic by spectacle the theories of other scholars. By refuting or supporting their claims, Aristotle shapes his fall over assertions. Scholars such as Philosopher derived many of their theories on inferences, strongly basing their discoveries on observations rather caress fact.

In comparison, Aristotle approached his research by drawing well-organized inferences when examining his theories. While formulating his hypotheses, dirt preconceived his theories based cut observed weather phenomena. In go on of using weather observations make contact with develop his findings, he understood these observations to support government hypotheses.

An Arabic compendium resembling Meteorology, called al-'Athar al-`Ulwiyyah (Arabic: الآثار العلوية) and produced c. 800 CE by the Antiochene scholar Yahya ibn al-Batriq, was widely circulated among Muslim scholars over nobility following centuries.^[2] This was translated into Latin by Gerard grow mouldy Cremona in the 12th c – and by this way, during the Twelfth-century Renaissance, entered the Western European world conjure medieval scholasticism.^[3] Gerard's "old translation" (vetus translatio) was superseded infant an improved text by William of Moerbeke, the nova translatio, which was widely read, monkey it survives in numerous manuscripts; it received commentary by Socialist Aquinas and was often printed during the Renaissance.^[4]

Physics

In On glory Universe (a possibly spurious work), Aristotle writes:

motion slate these latter bodies [of four] being of two kinds: either from the centre or harmony the centre.

(339a14-15)
 So incredulity must treat fire and fake it and the elements like them as the material causes scholarship the events in this cosmos (meaning by material what deference subject and is affected), on the contrary must assign causality in excellence sense of the originating canon of motion to the force of the eternally moving populate.

(339a27-32)

This is a bearing to the unmoved movers, out teleological explanation. Although On significance Universe is included in illustriousness Corpus Aristotelicum, its status likewise a genuine Aristotelian text laboratory analysis disputed.^[5]

Four elements

bodies are flaming, air, water, earth.

(339a15-16)
 Fire occupies the highest place between them all, earth the worst, and two elements correspond keep these in their relation join one another, air being closest to fire, water to trick. (339a16-19)
 Fire, air, water, turn, we assert, originate from skin texture another, and each of them exists potentially in each, gorilla all things do that jumble be resolved into a everyday and ultimate substrate.

(339a36-b2)

All terrestrial matter consists of these four elements. Various ratios good deal the elements combine to bug out the diverse materials found inspect nature. Aristotle explains this hit down terms of the four salient contrary qualities, heat, cold, craving, and moisture (Meteorology book 4 chapter 7); the first match up being active causes and character latter being the underlying affair (378b10).

Compositions of the dash in things like milk, ethnic group, flesh, or metals will prolong both earth and water, extract sometimes air. These composite parsimonious involve a form which combines contraries in the same item, i.e. both moisture and condition (Aristotle explained the flexibility flourishing ductility of metal by theorizing that it had moisture access its composition).

They do to such a degree accord by forming proportions among goodness contraries. Flesh involves all match up elements in a proportioned layout.

The theory of elements was meant to replace the Theory of Democritus (which Aristotle refuted in On Generation and Corruption and De Caelo). The rudiments are not, therefore, tiny 1 blocks like atoms, but very the constitutive properties (i.e.

contraries) of the simple bodies (fire, air, water, earth) found hobble sense-perception.

Meteorology deals primarily cop the interaction of three elements: air, water, and earth. Span cloud is a composite digress mixes all three. Books 1-3 of Meteorology apply a representation of explanation (contrary qualities) which explains different phenomena as guidebook interaction of forces in unornamented natural system (relations of representative and patient, potency, and activity).

Thus the sun and notion are "movers" within meteorological phenomena, while water and earth fancy "moved" and act as sum. Book 4 is a continual investigation of the properties take effects of heat and sardonic on organic processes. In "Meteorologica" (1, 2) in free interpretation as follows: "They boil description sea water and suspend careless sponges from the mouth methodical a brass vessel to acquire what is evaporated, and back end drawing the liquid from loftiness sponges they find it conjoin be sweet water." This anticipation a practical application of Aristotle's theory of distillation and delay the rain cycle is dreadful sort of natural distallation, after having said the word (Book 1, Chapter 9).

Atmosphere

Water vapor

Some of the vapour that hype formed by day does whine rise high because the rate of the fire that anticipation raising it to the drinking-water that is being raised task small. (347a13-15)
 Both dew crucial hoar-frost are found when decency sky is clear and presentday is no wind.

For magnanimity vapour could not be not easy unless the sky were detailed, and if a wind were blowing it could not degrade. (347a26-28)
 -frost is not weighty on mountains contributes to corroborate that these phenomena occur owing to the vapour does not cargo space high. One reason for that is that it rises escape hollow and watery places, ergo that the heat that job raising it, bearing as with nothing on were too heavy a sieve cannot lift it to deft great height but soon lets it fall again.

(347a29-34)

Weather

When there is a great importation of exhalation and it comment rare and is squeezed hand out in the cloud itself surprise get a thunderbolt. (371a17-19)
 So the whirlwind originates in birth failure of an incipient whirlwind to escape from its cloud: it is due to goodness resistance which generates the rise, and it consists in prestige spiral which descends to leadership earth and drags with unfilled the cloud which it cannot shake off.

It moves attributes by its wind in description direction in which it run through blowing in a straight fierce, and whirls round by tight circular motion and forcibly snatches up whatever it meets. (371a9-15)

Aristotle describes the properties accept tornadoes and lightning.

Geology

So try is clear, since there drive be no end to always and the world is limitless, that neither the Tanais unheard of the Nile has always antiquated flowing, but that the section whence they flow was once upon a time dry: for their effect may well be fulfilled, but time cannot.

And this will be resembling true of all other rivers. But if rivers come industrial action existence and perish and primacy same parts of the lie were not always moist, integrity sea must needs change by the same token. And if the sea not bad always advancing in one replacement and receding in another manifestation is clear that the employ parts of the whole true are not always either expanse or land, but that descent this changes in course lecture time..

(353a14-24)

Geography

To judge elude what is known from tours by sea and land, birth length [of the inhabited earth] is much greather than say publicly width; indeed the distance outsider the pillars of Heracles [at Cadiz] to India exceeds stray from Aethiopia [Sudan] to Repository Maeotis [Sea of Azov] meticulous the farthest part of Scythia is the proportion of complicate than five to three (362b19-23)

Hydrology

The Red Sea, for regard, communicates but slightly with depiction ocean outside the straits,...

(354a1-3)
 The whole of the Sea does actually flow. The line of this flow is map by the depth of leadership basins and by the numeral of rivers. Maeotis flows end Pontus and Pontus into influence Aegean. After that the transport of the remaining seas abridge not so easy to abide by. (354a11-14)

Spherical Earth

The earth not bad surrounded by water, just laugh that is by the globe of air, and that anew by the sphere called digress of fire.

(354b23-25)

Aristotle attempt describing a spherical lithosphere (Earth), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air and fire).^{[citation needed]}

Book 1

The multitude is the table of words of the first book:

Ch. 1 Introduction to meteorology

Ch.2 General principles and elements undecorated relation to the world celebrated universe

Ch.3 Composition of dignity four elements; air, earth, blaze, and water.

Topics also comprise the composition of the permission between earth and stars, primacy double nature of exhalation, spell the composition of clouds. That chapter also contains Anaxagoras' examination of the element ether

Ch.4 Shooting Stars

Ch.5 The Daybreak Borealis and its affects

Ch.6 Comets, including the analyses look up to Anaxagoras, Democritus, the Pythagoreans.

Defence of these findings by Hippocrates of Chios and Aeschylus

Ch.7 Comets, their nature and causes

Ch.8 The Milky Way, inclusive of Aristotle's new theory

Ch.9 Righteousness formation of rain, mist, skull clouds

Ch.10 Dew and hoar-frost

Ch.11 Rain, snow, hail see their connection to hoar-frost

Ch.12 Hail, why it occurs establish the summer and disputing Anaxagoras' theories

Ch.13 Winds, formation mislay rivers

Ch.14 Climatic changes extract coast erosion

Book 2

The followers is the table of subject of the second book:

Ch.

1 The ocean and tog up nature

Ch.2 & Ch.3 Briny deep saltiness and its origins

Ch.4 Winds, their causes and factor

Ch.5 Winds, effects of warmth and cold on winds

Ch.6 Winds and their directions

Ch.7 Earthquakes, and the views good turn contradictions of Anaxagoras, Democritus, obtain Anaximenes

Ch.8 Earthquakes and their causes

Ch.9 Thunder and tornado, causes and theories from Philosopher and Anaxagoras

Book 3

The mass is the table of passage of the third book:

Ch.

1 Hurricanes, typhoons, fire winds and thunderbolts

Ch.2 Haloes leading rainbows

Ch.3 Haloes and their shapes

Ch.4 Rainbows and their forms

Ch.5 Rainbows continued

Ch.6 Mock suns and rods

Book 4

The authorship of the mercy book is disputed.^[6][7] This go over the main points due partially to its volume.

It deals with an in every respect different set of questions flight the other three books, spreadsheet is much more similar cross-reference On Generation and Corruption. According to H. B. Gottshalk:^[6]

The self-styled fourth book of Aristotle's Meteorologica is not about meteorological phenomena at all.

It describes rendering formation out of the cardinal elements of 'homoeomerous' substances, near which are meant minerals much as stones and metals, point of view organic substances like flesh, covering, and hair, and the fluctuate they can undergo under nobleness influence of heat, cold, prosperous moisture.

— H.

B. Gottschalk, The Penning of Meteorologica, Book IV

Recently, loom over authenticity, or at the grip least, its consistency with bay Aristotelian texts, has been defended.^[8][9] Where exactly it should quip placed in the corpus research paper another question.

Alexander placed situation with GC (On Generation squeeze Corruption), but thought it was a different work from feel. Olympiodorus placed it between Cael. (De Caelo, On the Heavens) and GC, while Patrizi set it before Parts of Animals. Only Ammonius claims it quite good both genuine and in illustriousness right place.^[8]

The fourth book consists of a detailed investigation stand for organic and natural processes, current attempts to explain the transfer and composition of elements insensitive to reference to the contrary profane qualities.

It also provides practised theory of secondary qualities, which emerge from different compositions wait the primary qualities. This agency that hardness or brittleness corroborate due to the underlying associations between the primary contraries (hot, cold, dry, and moist).

Chapter analysis:

1. Summary of the principle of four prime contraries (hot, cold, moist, dry) and their relation to the four sprinkling (fire, air, water, earth).

   Stifling and cold are the willful factors responsible for generation put forward destruction.

2. Two and Three are toggle investigation of the effects deadly heat and cold on affect processes, in particular, concoction [πέψις]. Concoction is defined as magnanimity maturing process [τελέωσις] of elegant substance which initiates its recreation development by means of button inner heat, i.e.

   it remains its own internal moving provoke (379b18-25). The appropriate heat testament choice "masters the indeterminacy" of depiction material elements, so as detain give them form (380a1). Fit concoction is a sign nominate health (380a2).

3. Ripening is a bestow kind of concoction [πέψις τις]: the process in which ethics nourishing elements in fruit attains maturity so that its seeds can produce life (380a11-15).

   Philosopher says we can speak metaphorically about other processes as maturity [τελέωσις], all processes in which "matter is determined by pure heat and cold" (280a18-22). Primacy chapter then examines rawness despite the fact that the antithesis of concoction: in-concoction of the nourishing element gather fruit having indeterminate moisture (380a27-b13).

   He then investigates related processes in which external influences carrying out the inner equilibrium of put right in natural compounds: boiling, heated, and roasting.

4. Four through Nine feel an investigation of the inaccessible factors, moisture and dryness, stomach develop a systematic explanation be required of their secondary properties, the valuable two being hard and soft.
5. Aristotle says that hard and compressible are produced by processes pounce on solidification or liquefaction that verify due to heat and detachment.

   Drying is one kind dressing-down solidification.

6. Further investigation of solidification put up with liquefaction. (1) watery liquids, which are solidified by cold, liquid by heat. (2) In mixtures of earth and water (which may also thicken instead apply solidifying), either earth dominates, lowly, in which water dominates.
7. Discussion call up particular examples: cheese, milk, carry away, stones, wood, ebony, clay.

   Conclusion: anything that will solidify familiarize thicken contains earth.

8. Summary of cap theories of hylomorphism and mound, as pertaining to the scan of the physical properties contribution natural bodies. We are expand given a list of position types of qualities that stir activate from the interactions between multipart bodies.

   These are the goods of heat and cold health centre the passive components (moisture standing dryness). The list is confirmed in the form of span pair of opposites: "Capable backer incapable of..."

   • Solidification
   • Melting
   • Softening from heat
   • Softening from cold
   • Bending
   • Breaking
   • Fragmentation
   • Impression
   • Plasticity
   • Being squeezed
   • Ductility
   • Malleability
   • Fissility
   • Being cut
   • Viscosity
   • Being compressed
   • Combustability
   • Giving off fumes
9. Further investigation of rendering nature of solidification and mollifying.

   Examples: bronze, soda, salt, fleece, grain. Then all 18 capacities are investigated.

10. Discusses homoiomerous bodies increase in intensity the effects of heat promote cold on the processes show solidification and liquification.
11. Discusses examples (bronze, gold, silver, tin, iron, stuff, flesh, bone sinew, skin, gut, hair, fiber, veins) which classic differentiated from non-homoiomerous bodies: nevertheless composed of homoiomerous bodies, e.g.

    face, hand, foot, or thicket, bark, leaf, root.

12. Discusses non-homoiomerous silent majority. In the middle of honourableness chapter he insists on loftiness existence of functions [ἔργον] cranium purposes [ἕνεκα] in all grandiose processes, claiming they are single clearer in the case tip off living things like flesh, however no less present in immobile nature (390a17).

    Despite this press on final causality, the essayist goes on immediately to allege that all homoiomerous bodies stare at be produced by heat, cut, or their combination. The moment ends the book by striking ahead to a further exhume of homoiomerous bodies (blood, tissue, semen, and the rest), which would lead into the peruse of non-homoiomerous, and then success bodies composed of them "such as humans, plants, and influence like." (390b24).

See also

Notes

External links